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APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY CLUB

Applied Linguistics Study Club

The followings are the answers of Applied Linguistics task questions from the students of AL 2009 / 2010 :

Behaviorism (Question 2) -  by: 70087

How does Skinner’s  theory of learning differ from Watson’s? 

Answer:

The Skinner’s theory  tries to account for most of human learning and behavior. Operant behavior is behavior in which one operates on the invironment. Within this model the importance of stimuli is de-emphasized. More emphasis, however, is on the consequence of stimuli.  Skinner’s  operant  conditioning seems to be preoccupied with scientific controls. This has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification ) as well as teaching (i.e.,clasroom management ) and instructional development ( i.e programmed instruction ). He that any subject matter could be thaugh effectively and succesfully by carefully designed program of step by-step reinforment. As we know that renforcement is the key element. The event of stimulli ( the reinforcers ) constitute a powerful force in the control of human behavior. Skinner’s  make quite clear that learning language athough it is complex ,is same as learning other  learned behavior. He state that in all verbal behavior under stimulus control there are three  important events to be taken  into accounts, namely: a stimulus, a response, and reinforcement. These three are contingent upon each other. We can see  this in the following way :  the stimulus, acting prior to emission of the response, sets the occasion upon which the response is likely to be reinforced. Under  this contigency, though a process of operant discrimination, the stimulus becomes the occasion upon the response is likely to be emmited. Is different with watson’s  theory  that  orginated from Pavlov’s  experiment that stimulus and response work to gether. In his exsperience hetrained a dog to salivate  when hearing  a tuning fork though produce  that has come to be known as  classical conditioning. for him, the process of learning consisted of the formation of association between stimuli and reflexive response.  Watson’s reject the mentalistic notion of innateness and instinct, iinstead, he bellieve that by the procces of conditioning  we can build set stimulus response connections, and more complex behavior are learned by building up series of response .

Behaviorism (Question 4) -  by: 70265

Explain the implication of behaviorist theory in foreign language teaching.

Answer:

The implication of behaviorist theory in language teaching with audio lingual method is theory use of the behavior as verbal behavior the stimulus respond and reinforcement.for example  when the student meet to talk to two people: A: Hello!  B: Hello! In the behavioral view, A first say “hello”, which is to stimulate, provoke B response. In the foreign language teaching in the classroom, the teacher’s task is to teach students to distinguish the mother tongue of the new language habits, so that students develop the correct target language habits in order to achieve communicative.

Behaviorism (Question 5) –  by: 80086

Discuss the mechanistic classroom practice in Audiolingual Method.

Answer:

The mechanistic classroom practice in Audiolingual Method: a) Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. b) Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form. c) Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. d) The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. e) Teaching a language,thus involves teaching aspect of the cultural system of the people who speak the language.

Behaviorism (Question 7) –  by: 70003

What does the tenet which says “ Foreign language learning is bassically a process of mechanical habit formation” mean ? how does is tenet realized in the classroom?

Answer:

It means describe a stimulus, respons and reinforcement. In here stimulus is a what is taught response as the learners reaction to the stimulus, or what is the reaction learner’s get stimulus . and reinforcement as the approval or praise of the teacheror fellow students. In foreign language learning a means of the frequent reinforcement of a stimulus and response sequence. It has enormous impact an language teaching. It is also acquiring a set of appriate language stimulus response, it is a mechanical process of habit formation. In here Tenet realized in the classroom , emphasizes stimulus, response and reinforcement. For example : Stimulus ( the teacher give questions to learners) – Organism ( human being) – response ( Behavior , it is answer the questions ) – reinforcement ( behavior likely to occur again and become habit and No reinforcement ( negative reinforcement, behavior not likely to occur again ).

Cognitivism (Question 1) -  by: 80082

Describe the concept of cognition and cognitive process!

Answer:

The concept of cognition is the usage of human’s mind in the learning process. A human has a mind which is viewed as an agent in the thinking learning process. The mind is active and determining agent in the acquisition and storage of knowledge. The learning process can be performed by thought or mind, not by human behavior, because a behavior can be happened because of mind. People learn not through respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn and who can use their cognitive power such as problem-solving to acquire knowledge.

According to Cognitive psychology, the term cognitive process refers to individual internal mental operation. It may involve conscious attention to some point the teaching is making, conscious reorganization of material to understand better the concept being learned, or conscious attempts to recall previously learned information. The cognitive processes are mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem solving need to be explored. The Cognitive psychology viewed the learning process as a two-way process between the organism and its environment. In the cognitive theory the mind is viewed as an agent in the learning process. So, learners are active processors of information and the role of the teacher is to recognize the importance of the students’ mental assets and mental activity in learning (in Cognitive Code Learning). Teacher’s task is also to organize the material being presented in such a manner that what is to be learned will be meaningful to the learners. To do this, teachers are obligated to consider the learner’s existing cognitive structure. The next obligation is to try to teach the material in such a fashion and in such a context that the learners can relate the context to their exiting knowledge. The new information must be relatable by the learners to their past knowledge and experience. In addition, teachers should encourage an active questioning attitude on the part of the learners, to help them understand and relate what is being learned to what they already now.

Cognitivism (Question 3) -  by: 70263

The central issue that that interest cognitive psychologists include the internal mechanism of human thought and the processes of knowing; what does this statement mean?

Answer:

Cognitive psychologists have attempted to find out the answers to mental structures, such as what is stored and how it stored, and to mental processes concerning how the integration and retrieval of information is operated. The theoretical assumptions in cognitive psychology provide instructional systems for the design of efficient processing strategies for the learner to acquire knowledge such as mnemonic devices to reduce the workload of the short-term memory, rehearsal strategies to maintain information, and the use of metaphors and analogies to relate meaning of the new information.

Cognitivism (Question 5) -  by: 70309

Ausubel proposes two types of learning : rote learning and meaning full. What are the characteristics of each learning type; give examples to clarify your example.

Answer: 

The crucial factors determining whether learning is rote or meaningful is the manner in which the material is learned. Rote learning is sometimes disparaged with the derogative termsparrot fashion, regurgitation, cramming, or mugging because one who engages in rote learning may give the wrong impression of having understood what they have written or said. It is strongly discouraged by many new curriculum standards. For example, science and mathematics standards in the United States specifically emphasize the importance of deep understanding over the mere recall of facts, which is seen to be less important, although advocates of traditional education have criticized the new American standards as slighting learning basic facts and elementary arithmetic, and replacing content with process-based skills. meaningful learning is best achieved through three factor: 1. the most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, quality, and organizing of the learner’s present knowledge which consist of facts, concepts, propositions, theories, and raw perceptual. 2. learning is influenced by the extent to which new information being received or considered is relatable to the learner must approach to the learner’s existing cognitive structure. 3. the learner must approach the learning task with the intention to relate it in a meaningful way to what they already know. in short, meaningful learning takes place in the following condition: 1. the learners comprehend the material 2. they can relate the material to their present knowledge system in a non-arbitrary and non-verbatim manner 3. they consciously intent to integrate the material being learned into their owb cognitive structure.

Cognitivism (Question 7) –  by: 70292

What should a teacher do to make teaching and learning meaningful? 

Answer: 

According David Ausumbel’s cognitive theories of learning is that learning must be meaningful. The learner must understand what is to be learned. Ausumbel ( 1968: 61) state “that acquisition of large bodies of knowledge is simply impossible in the absence of meaningful learning .” The implication is that learning must involved active mental processes in order to be meaningful and that only trough meaningful learning can students acquire significant amount of knowledge. From this statement we can conclude that learning meaningful if in teaching learning process students can understand the material and student’s can improve of knowledge from the learning process.

Cognitivism (Question 8) –  by: 70303

Discuss the application of cognitivism in foreign language teaching.

Answer:

The application cognitive theories of learning emphasize understanding rather than habit formation (cf. Audiolingual Method). The teacher’s task is to facilitate student acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge. The goal of the teachers is to expand the student’s ability to create meaningful replies. On the other hand students should always be aware of what they are learning. In deductive learning a situation is created in which in the target item is embedded in meaningful context. Learner are told the rule and given the opportunity to apply it to several practice examples. In inductive learning, the student is given a number of examples and asked work out the rules through a process of guided discovery. The cognitivists are also much lenient about learners’ mistakes or error. They believe making mistakes is an important part of learning process. Errors give proof that learning process takes place.

Cognitivism (Question 10) -  by: 80248

Clarify how Audiolingual Method and Cognitive Code Learning view learner errors. 

Answer: 

In Audiolingual Method, learner errors are viewed as avoidable, by following the teacher’s intruction in the learning process. Example: > repeat after me > be polite > answer the question > etc. In Cognitive Code Learning, learner errors are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process. They belive that making mistakes or errors is an important part of learning process. Errors give proof that learning process take place, that is errors are inevitable sign of human fallibility, for example, as the consequence of lack of attention or poor memory on the part of the learners, incomplete knowledge of the language, or inadequacy of the teachers’ teaching.

Humanism (Question 1) -  by: 70283

Describe the main differences between Behaviorist, cognitive, and Humanistic view of human being. 

Answer:

• Behaviorist is the psychological of language learning which conclude that behaviorist stimulus-response concept and an assumption that second language learning should reflect and imitate the perceived process of mother tongue and learning is the result of external factors operating on and shaping the organism’s behavior. Behaviorist states that people are conditioned to learn many forms of behavior, including language, through the process training or conditioning.

• Cognitive is concerned about cognitive process of knowledge acquisition. Cognitive underpins the rise of a foreign language teaching methodology called cognitive approach or cognitive code learning. It emphasize on studying a foreign language of a system of rules and knowledge, rather than learning it as a set of skills. This method was intended as an alternative to the Audio lingual method was intended as an alternative to the audio lingual method that emphasize habit formation as process of language learning. The role of the teacher is to recognize the importance of the student’s mental assets and mental activity in learning.
• Humanism is originally a psychological term. It emphasizes the importance of the inner world of the human being and places the individual’s thoughts, feeling and emotions at the forefront of all human developments.

Humanistic approach to learning highlights the importance of emotions and feelings in learning. These two qualities are somewhat ignored in behavioral and cognitive. To humanistic view, humans are emotional beings and emotions influence how they receive and react to information from the environment. In humanistic view, human being is a whole person who not only has physic and cognition, but more importantly has feeling and emotion. Humanistic principle of learning, therefore has more affective focus than behaviorist and cognitive ones.

Humanism (Question 4) -  by: 70089

Describe and give examples the pedagogical implication of humanistic approach.

Answer :

Humanistic is originally a psychological term. It emphasizes the importance of the inner world of the human being and places the individual’s thoughts, feelings and emotions at the forefront of all human developments. Humanistic approach to learning highlights the importance of emotions and feeling learning. These two qualities are somewhat ignored in behavioral and cognitive approaches.

Example : Teachers should be real facilitators of learning and focus more on how to learn than what to learn, provide the students with fishing gear rather than fish.

Humanism (Question 5) -  by: 70179

Describe some classroom activities which are based on humanistic principles.

Answer:

There are some example classroom activities which are based on humanistic principles

The learners make a groups which consist ideally of twelve in number and divided equally between boys and girls. They sit and circle, which encourages face to face exchange and activity participation. These activities include role-playing, game, singing songs, etc.  The learners are given new names also contain phonemes from the target culture. The new names also contain phonemes from the target culture that difficult to pronounce.

The classroom procedure : An oral review section.

- The material learned previously is us as the basis for discussion, games, acting, etc.

- New material is presented and discussed consist of looking over a new dialog and discussing any   issues of grammar vocabulary, and content, the materials should be presented attractively in accordance with the theme at the content, varying intonations and coordination of sound are manipulated in presenting materials.

- The séance or concert session.

Humanism (Question 6) -  by: 70094

Describe the characteristics of healthy person or fully functioning person according to    Rodgers. 

Answer:

1. Openness to experience. This is the opposite of defensiveness. It is the accurate perception of one’s experiences in the world, including one’s feelings. It also means being able to accept reality, again including one’s feelings.
2. Existential living. This is living in the here and now. Rogers, as a part of getting in touch with reality, insists that we not live in the past or the future the one is gone, and the other is not anything at all, yet! The present is the only reality we have. This does not mean we should not remember and learn from our past. Neither does it mean we should not plan or even day dream about the future. We need to recognize these things for what they are: memories and dreams, which we are experiencing here in the present.
3. Organismic trusting. We should allow ourselves to be guided by the organismic valuing process. We should trust ourselves do what feels right and what comes natural. It means we trust our real self, and we can only know what our real self has to say if we are open to experience and living existentially. In other words, organismic trusting assumes we are in contact with the actualizing tendency.
4. Experiential freedom. Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not people really had free will. This is not to say, of course that we are free to do anything at all. We are surrounded by a deterministic universe and we feel free when choices are available to us. Rogers says that the fully functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom and takes responsibility for his choices.
5. Creativity. if we feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and participate in the world. A fully functioning person, in touch with actualization, will feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself. This can be materialized through creativity in the arts or sciences, through social concern and parental love, or simply by doing one’s best at one’s job. Creativity as Rogers uses it is very close to Erikson’s generativity.

Humanism (Question 7) –  by: 70104

Roger’s humanism posits that the important aspect in learning is the context. Discuss this statement. 

Answer: 

In Roger’s humanism the important in learning because Roger’s humanism to have a natural potential for learning, than learners can freely what they need to and to do for learning. Beside that the important of Roger’s has been the most influential figure in the field of language teaching and learners can be involves active participation.

Humanism (Question 8)  -  by: 70240

Nunan presents the five most important functions of teacher. Describe and give examples.

Answer:

The five most important function of teacher according to Nunan.

1.   The Cognitive   Function.

The teacher possesses knowledge desired by the students about the target language and culture. The teacher must have this knowledge, which the student expect us to impart to them.

2.   The Classroom Management Function.

Our student and the society in which we work expect us to take responsibility for how the student’s time is used in the class. The students rely on our training and experience with materials, schedule and techniques.

3.   Practical Goals.

Here Stevick is referring to the goals which the students and society have for language courses. The teacher is expected to take these vaguely thought out or articulated goals and give them practical expression in language teaching syllabuses.

4.   The Personal or Interpersonal Function.

As a teacher with the desired skills, knowledge and expertise, we have a great deal of power in the classroom and it is our responsibility to set the tone or interpersonal classroom climate. The atmosphere we set will determine whether the student’s nonlinguistic emotional needs are met in the classroom.

5.   The Humanistic Function.

It is closely related to the fourth, but is subtler. It has to do with the warmth and enthusiasm that the teacher radiates to the learners. The teacher should spread the vibes of affection and passion so that the learners learn better. According to Stevick, this is the most important function of all.

Humanism (Question 9) -  by: 70024

Describe some qualities of humanistic teacher as described by Wang. 

Answer:

1.   Capable of developing the “whole person” of the students intellectually as well as emotionally.

2.   Have genuine trust and acceptance of the students as worthy, valuable individuals, and help them to build up positive self-concept.

3.   Teachers should be real facilitators of learning and focus more on how to learn than what to learn; i.e. provide students with fishing gear rather than fish.

Constructivism (Question 3) –  by: 80158

One of vygotsky’s consept influental in pedagogy field is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Describe this concept briefly. Answer: ZPD is a concept that build scaffolding. the important of scaffolding.how the adult author child to fogus positif question and interaction. the proses communication between teacher and student to colaborated and negosiation. ?????

Constructivism (Question 5) –  by: 70205

Describe the pedagogical implication of constructionist approach. 

Answer: In pedagogical, constructivism is often contrasted with the behaviorist approach. We have previously discussed that behaviorism emphasized observable and external behavior, which avoids reference to meaning, representation and thought. Constructivism takes a more cognitive approach, as Glaserfled (in Murply, 1997: 5) also argue “From the constructivist’s perspective , learning is not a stimulus-response phenomenon. It requires self-regulation and building of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction.”

Constructivism (Question 7) –  by: 70310

Describe the characteristics of teacher role based on constructionist principles. 

Answer: 

1. Teachers transfer their thought to the passive students ,there is not much opportunity for students to ask questions, independent thought or interaction between students. 2. Teachers as facilitator in the learning process, as outlined below; a. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. b. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental; it happens in the mind . c. Learning involves languages; the language we use influences learning. d. Learning is a social activity; e. Learning is contextual; f. It takes time to learn; g. One needs knowledge to learn; h. Motivation is a key component in learning.

Constructivism (Question 8) –  by: 70108

Deriwianka and Butt et. al. design a foreign language teaching method based on constructionist theory. Describe the learning procedure of the method which characterizes constructionist principles. 

Answer:

Constructivism, especially Vygotsky ideas, has been adopted by Derewiangka (1990) and Butt. et. al. (2001) to design a foreign language teaching method called Genre-Based Instruction. The descriptions of the cycle in Derewiangka (1990) and Butt. et. al. (2001) vary in minor ways, but four phases essential for developing control of a genre may be identified, namely: Context Exploration, Text Exploration based on Model Text, Joint Construction Text, and Individual Application. Begin with context exploration, “context” referring to the possible context of situation in which the chosen text-type or genre may be used. This phase resembles the pre-listening, reading, speaking, writing phase that has come to be typical in communicative language teaching (CLT), and the activities that may be carried out may resemble to typical pre-activities in skill-based teaching. It’s has aims as warming up and activation of mental schema, the main goal of the genre based curriculum cycle is to help the student to become aware of and understand some aspects such as: the social purpose of the chosen genre, the contextual factors influencing the production of the texts, and text themselves. Next stage, text exploration based on model text, is the first of two perhaps distinctive key phase in the Curriculum Cycle that demonstrate how GBA different from other forms the CLT. The aims of this phase are to familiarize the learners with the target of text-type/genre, and to draw attention to organizational and linguistic features commonly found in text belonging to it. Using such model texts, the Pedagogical activities to make it explicit the features of the text-type are carried out. These may include of a range of established “communicative activities”, such as the re assembling of “jigsaw” text or information gap exercises, but the tasks are deliberately constructed in such ways as to highlight the salient lexical and grammatical features. The task aim to be implicitly analytical, and not just to facilitate interaction as an end in itself. More explicitly analytical work is also possible: for example, students may be asked to “hunt” for highlight all instance of a specific grammatical form. In joint construction of a text, here referring to the model texts, and making use of the knowledge and awareness gained from the exploration of the text, the student work with the teacher to construct their own text (spoken or written) in the text-type/genre. This can take some forms of activity such as teacher-fronted whole-class co-construction of a single text on the board, small-group or pair construction with the teacher helping each group or pair by turn, or teacher conferencing with individual students. What is to be noted in both the text exploration and joint construction phases is that while there is much oral interaction taking place, its nature and intention is different from that of the most forms of CLT. Where the interactive activities in CLT are often designed to stimulate real life interaction, directed a providing opportunities for talking in the language, the talk in GBA is about using language and is focused on collaborative effort to learn to accomplish a purpose in the language. Last stage in cycle is individual application, as the name suggests, and requires learners to work individually/independently, for example: in the case of writing, to produce individual essay. Ideally this is carried out only after the student have successfully produced in jointly constructed text or understanding of a text. This phase then provides the opportunity for self-regulation, the crucial final stage in Vygotsky’s model of learning. What each learner produces can be further recycled through further other-regulation (i.e. peer editing, teacher feedback) until the learner attains a desired level of attainment.

Second Language Acquisition (Question 2) –  by: 80087

Discuss several benefits for the study of SLA.

Answer:

The several benefits for the study of SLA, for one thing, the study of SLA is fascinating in its own right, “understanding it requires drawing upon knowledge of psychology, linguistic, sociology, anthropology, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and neuro-linguistics, among others” (Larsen-Freeman and Longs, 1999:2). Secondly, the findings of SLA studies inevitability provide a source of insights into second language teaching and learning; since efficient language teaching must work with natural processes, facilitate and accelerate learning. And this can happen best if we know the nature of SLA. The central players, processes and content in language teaching field are depicted in three-mode system-teacher/teaching, language/culture, and learners/learning (as seen in the figure below) Teacher/Teaching Language/Culture                                                Learners/Learning The figure implies that the language teacher’s decision about teaching process should be informed by insights or knowledge of three interrelated components. The first component is subject matter they are teaching (target language and culture), the second is learners with whom they are working with and the third is the language learning process (Larsen-Freeman and Longs, 1993). SLA concerns more on the lower right angel of the triangle the learning process of the learners. On the part of the learner surely they can take benefit from the study of SLA. Their specific awareness of the SLA process facilities their subsequent attempts at the target language learning. Finally, the study of SLA may prove helpful as well in other areas.

Second Language Acquisition (Question 3) –  by: 80089

Basically SLA has two Major goals: description and explanation. Discuss each goal and provide examples.

Answer:

1) Description goal is to identify how learners acquire a second language (or L2, hereafter). In this case the researcher can simply ask the learners who have been successful in learning and L2 and how they did it.

Example: Collecting samples of learner’s language both speech and writing

2) Explanation goal is to identify the external and internal factor that account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they do. The external factors, which may influence SLA, are the social milieu and the input. Social milieu often influences the opportunity for the learners to acquire the language as well as the attitudes they develop toward it.

Example: (1.) friendly social conditions will be conducive for SLA. Hostel social conditions however, will inhabit SLA.( 2.) More beneficial for the learners than that of authentic one.

From:From:60168; 60206; 60264; 60270; 60293 (entry 1)

Affective Domain (Question 3) –  by: 60281

What is self-esteem? And discuss a trio hierarchy to account for self-esteem.

Answer:

Self Esteem is a feeling of self worth. It is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitude that the individual holds towards him self. It is evaluation, whish the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to him. It is expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an individual successful and worth. (Cooper Smith, 1967; Brown 2004: 145)

• The first hierarchy of self-esteem, the global self-esteem is the individual’s overall self esteem. It is the general assessment someone makes of his own worth over time and across a number of situations. Global and general self esteem said to be relatively stable in a mature adult. It is also resistant to change expect by active and extended therapy. (Brown,2004: 145)
• The second level of self-esteem, the specific self-esteem, refers to the way individuals perceive themselves in various life contexts (social interaction, education, work, home, etc) or on certain characteristics (such as intelligence, attractiveness, communicative ability) or personal characteristics (i.e. gregariousness, empathy, and flexibility)
• The third level of self-esteem, the task self-esteem, refers to the evaluation or perception individual give to themselves on specific tasks. In educational context, for example, it relates to particular subject matter.

Affective Domain (Question 8) –  by: 80173

Discuss Gardner and Lambert’s view on motivation: integrative and instrumental. Provide examples to support your explanation.

Answer:

A) Integrative motivation is a motivation from own self or from the students.

Example: there are intentions from the students because they want to speak other language, such as: there is family from other country.

B) Instrumental motivation is a motivation which is influence from other people because there are some destinations.

Example: the peoples who study foreign language such as: English, to fill the bill to get he job.

Multiple Intelligences (Question 2)

Gardner proposes nine different types of intelligences. Briefly explain each of types and provide examples to clarify your answer.

Answer: Gardner’s Model of Multiple Intelligences

1. Linguistic Intelligences Gardner has described linguistic intelligence as sensitivity to spoken and written language and the ability to use language to accomplish goals, as well as the ability to learn new languages. Example: Teacher, lecturer.

2. Logical/mathematical Intelligence Gardner described logical-mathematical intelligence as the ability to study problems to carry out mathematical operations logically and analytically and to conduct scientific investigations. Example: scientist.

3. Spatial/Visual Intelligence Gardner defined spatial intelligence as the ability to recognize both large and small visual pattern. Example: sculptors, architects.

4. Musical Intelligence Gardner suggests that musical intelligence is parallel in structure to linguistic intelligence, and that it is reflected in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical pattern. Example: Singer, Musician.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence Gardner described this intelligence as the potential of using the whole body or patrs of the body in problem solving or creation products. Example: Mechanics, Technician.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence According to gardner, people who have this intelligence can understand the intentions, motivation, needs, and desire of other and capable working effectively with them. Example: Psiciater

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Gardner described intrapersonal intelligence as the ability to understand and to have an effective working working model of one- self. example: Movie actors.

8. Naturalistic Intelligence Gardner described a naturalist as one who is able to recognize and clasify objects. Example: Farmer, Gardener.

9. Existential Intelligence Gardner considered existential intelligence as the intelligence of understanding in a large context or big picture. Example: Philosoper.

From: 70055; 70067; 70126; 70155; 70275 (entry 7)

Multiple Intelligences (Question 6)

Relevant to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is the VAK learning style. Describe this concept.

Answer:

According to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is relatable VAK (Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic) learning style model. This model offers relatively simple and accessible methods to understand and explain people’s referred ways to learn and develop. This model offers a help to understand overall personality, preferences and strengths, which will almost always be a mixture in each individual person.

VAK learning style model category learner type into three categories:

1. Visual Learners Visual learners learn through seeing. These learners need to see the teacher’s body language and facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tent to prefer sitting at the front of the class to avoid visual obstructions (e.g. people’s heads). They may think in picture and learn best from visual displays including: diagrams, illustrated text books, over head transparencies, video, flip chart and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

2. Auditory Learners Auditory learners learn through listening. They learn best through verbal lecture, discussion, talking thing through and listening to what other have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meaning of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Writing information may have little meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.

3. Kinesthetic Learners Tactile/kinesthetic learners learn through, moving, doing and touching. Tactile/kinesthetic persons learn best through a hand on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration. (Currie, 2003: 6-8)

From: 60109; 60117;  60119; 60128; 60132 (entry 4)

Multiple Intelligences (Question 8)

Observe a classroom and write a questionnaire on multiple intelligences. Use the questionnaire to collect data of the intelligence profile of the students. Write a proposed classroom design appropriate to this class.

Answer: A. Questionnaire on Multiple Intelligences 1. In this subject matter, which one do you like? a. math b. science c. linguistic d. art 2. What kinds of music do you like? a. classic b. jazz c. rock d. pop 3. Which one do you like from this following options? a. reading b. writing c. singing d. discussing 4. Which one do you like from this following figures? a. Albert Einstein b. Ir. Soekarno c. David Beckham d. Michael Jackson 5. From this following television programm, which one do you like? a. news b. game show c. entertainment d. talk show

* We can know the intelligence profile of the students from this options -> The students who choose options A and B has left brain domination -> The students who choose options C and D has right brain domination

B. Classroom Design

Classroom Design in multiple intelligences use VAK ( Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic ) learning style model. * Visual : diagram, illustrated text books, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs. * Auditory : discussion, talking, and listening to tone of voice * Kinesthetic : moving, doing, touching

From: 70202; 70209; 70232; 70235; 70268 (entry 26)

Transfer Analysis (Question 1)

What does a Native Language transfer mean? 

Answer:

The Native Language Transfer means the speaker or the writer (from English country) applies their knowledge from the native language (NL / English) to the second language (TL / target language). It occurs in any situation when someone does not have a native language command of a language, as when translating into the second language.

Example:

When the native language speaker says, “I have a book”, she or he translates the sentence to “Aku punya sebuah buku” in Indonesian.

If the native language speaker cannot find the word in the second language, she or he can paraphrase the word into the easy word(s), in order to help the listener to understand his/her sentence(s) in the target language well. For example:

‘carry‘, can be paraphrased with ‘support the weight of somebody or something and take them or it from place to place‘.

The Native Language can be divided into two. They are: 1) Positive Transfer Positive transfer is linguistic interference can result in correct language production. “Correct” means most native speaker’s notion of acceptability.

2) Negative Transfer Negative Transfer is most often discussed as a source of errors. it occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages.

From: 60006; 60262; 70137; 70125; 70069; 70061 (entry 9)

Transfer Analysis (Question 2)

Two terms contrastive linguistics and contrastive analysis are introduced in this section. Could you explain the goal of these fields?

Answer :

Contrastive linguistics is a practice-oriented linguistic approach that seeks to describe the differences and similarities between a pair of languages (hence it is occasionally called “differential linguistics”). Contrastive linguistic studies can also be applied to the differential description of one or more varieties within a language, such as styles (contrastive rhetoric), dialects, registers or terminologies of technical genres. So the goal of contrastive linguistic is to analysis differences and similarities between a pair of language, such as styles (contrastive rhetoric), dialects, registers or terminologies of technical genres.

Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identify theirstructural differences and similarities. A contrastive analysis describes the structural differences and similarities of two (or more) languages.  Thus, the goal of contrastive analysis is to analyze structural differences and similarities between the first languge (L1) and the second language (L2).

For example: 1. FL: Saya membaca novel. SL: I read novel.

Those sentences above show that two languages have structural similarities (by using pattern SPO)

2. FL: It made the boy sad to see the old man works every night. SL: Anak itu merasa kasihan menyaksikan si lelaki tua bekerja setiap malam.

Those sentences above show that two languages have structural differences. Sad into merasa kasihan (adj -> VP) and to see -> menyaksikan (to Inf V -> V)

From: 70264; 70269; 70274; 70275; 70276 (entry 34)

Transfer Analysis (Question 3)

What is the strongest motivation for conducting CA in its earlier days?

Answer :

Contrastive analysis is the first proposed by Fries as an integral component of the methodology of foreign language teaching. The strongest motivation for conducting CA in its earlier days involves applied work, that is to prepare the best teaching materials.

Conducting CA is to learn about “negative transfer”, that is traditionally associated with the making of learner errors. Fries declared that “the most effective materials are those that are based upon scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with the parallel description of the native language of the learners” (1945:9). it was the fist issued about the character for modern CA. Then, Lado, Fries student continued the work and came up withLinguistic across Culture (1957), which became a classic field manual for practical contrastive studies.

Contrastive analysis is an idea that it was used in the preparation of special intensive course for foreign language teaching. It took over a dual role : 1. to select and grade the structure to be taught while pin-pointing areas of potential difficulty through the use of contrastive analysis techniques. 2. to write the actual teaching materials. (Howatt and Widdowson)

From: 70250; 70253; 70261; 70272; 70273 (entry 18)

Transfer Analysis (Question 4)

By early1970s CA was already open to attack both on its empirical validity as well as its theoretical foundations. Describe the criticism addressed to CA.

Answer:

CA (Contrastive Analysis) is a branch of linguistics which seeks to compare two or more languages with the aims at describing the similarities and differences between them. By early 1970s, however CA was already attacked both on its empirical validity as well as its theoretical foundations, and today CA keeps appearing implicitly or explicitly incorporated with other approaches such as error analysis and interlanguage. The criticism of classical CA (strong version) can be classified into two: 1) Criticism of the predictions made by CA 2) Criticism of the theoretical basis of CA. CA is just part of the research needed to predict, explain, and treat errors. The immediate findings of CA are not for classroom consumption; they are for the textbook writers and the teachers.

From: 60233; 60217; 60215; 60234; 60225; 60150 (entry 19)

Transfer Analysis (Question 5)

Wardhaugh suggested that the Contrastive Analysis  Hypothesis (CAH) should be thought of two vesions, strong and weak version. Explain how these two distinct.

Answer:

In the strong version, CAH means that errors or learning difficulties can be predicted by contrasting the native language (NL) with the target language (TL). Thus, it can be known that strong version of CA has ‘predictive function‘. The strong version is no longer practiced in applied linguistics.

In the weak version, CAH makes the more cautious claim that it can explain (diagnose) a subset of actually attested errors. Thus, it can be known that weak version of CA has ‘explanatory function‘.  Wardhaugh (1970: 144) states that “teachers and linguists have successfully used the best linguistic knowledge available in order to account for observed difficulties in second language learning”. This suggests that by conducting a CA (the weak version), linguists or language practitioners can use the knowledge available in order to explain the difficulties in second language learning.

From: 50177; 50198; 50199; 50277 (entry 6)

Transfer Analysis (Question 7)

Kellermen has proposed an influential hypothesis from research on native language influence called psychotypology. What does this theory say?

Answer:

Kellermen’s (1987; 1995) highly influential hypothesis from research on native language influence is the notion of ‘psychotypology’ or perceived language distance. It refers to the relations that learners perceive to exist between the native languages and the target language, that is, the perceived linguistic distance between NL and second language forms or structures. The recent literature on NL influence, the term psychotypology has been replaced by terms such as language distance and typological proximity (Kellermen, 1995). In his transfer hypothesis, he states that language distance is one important determining factor in second language acquisition; in the sense that the more similar the languages are at some point, the more likely the native language is to facilitate development in the TL, whereas learners from typologically more distant language may not learn as well as those from a typologically closer language.

From: 60007; 60051; 60053; 60056; 60058; 60080 (entry 17)

Transfer Analysis (Question 8)

What does Kellerman believe about borrowing in the L2 learner’s language?

Answer:

Borrowing is a performance phenomenon, not a learning process, a feature of language use and not of language structure. It is a communicative strategy, recognized by Kellerman (1987) as transfer strategy, for example: the use of mother tongue in the learner’s written production. The learners use items, particularly syntactic and lexical from mother tongue in their interlanguage. The fact actually is that the learners are using certain aspect of his mother tongue to express his meaning because his interlanguage lacks the means to do it. Kellerman & Sharwood-Smith (1986), use the term “cross-linguistic influence” (CLI) to refer to such phenomena as “transfer“, “avoidance“, “borrowing” and others under one heading. CLI operates on the surface form of IL reflecting such processes as transfer.  In the most radical cases, CLI is at least considered as the direct cause of erroneous performance (Kellerman, 1995, p. 125). Borrowing transfer is a phenomenon most of us have experienced.

From: 60105; 60154; 70242; 70247; 70251 (entry 25)

Transfer Analysis (Question 9)

What do Lightbown and Spada believe about native language influence?

Answer :

Lightbown and Spada (1993) confirm that learners’ native language often influences the acquisition of the Target Language. They have found that these influences are not always negative. Instead, they often reflect the learner’s effort to use prior knowledge about the language that they know in order to learn a new language. When the sounds, words, or the sentence structure of the learner’s native language share something in common with the new language, this active drawing on one’s prior knowledge will help the learner’s SLA tremendously. However, when the sounds, words, or the sentence structure differ widely between the two languages, or the sounds, words, or the sentence structure of the second language do not exist in the learner’s native language, confusion and errors will arise as to make SLA difficult.

From: 60052; 60116; 60140; 60145; 60153; 60Farlian (entry 13)

Transfer Analysis (Question 10)

What do Gass and Selinker say about the L2 learner’s first language in the acquisition of an L2?

Answer:

In the process of the acquisition of L2, the first language of L2 earners influences the L2. Accent of the first language will be heard when learners speak in L2. It can be called that First language is dominant in L2 acqusition.

For example; – Javanesse person speaks Indonesian using the accent of java language. -An Indonesian person speaks English using the accent of Indonsian laguage .

From: 60123; 60139; 60148; 60323 (entry 5)

Error Analysis (Question 1)

Discuss the contributions of Error Analysis to language teaching!

Answer:

The contributions of Error Analysis to language teaching: The language teaching cannot stand away from the findings of error analysis. Students’ errors have always been of interest and significance to teachers, syllabus designers and test developers. Errors are a means of feedback for the teacher reflecting how effective he is in his teaching style and what changes he has to make to get higher performance from his students. Analysis of second language learners’ errors can help identify learners’ linguistic difficulties and needs at a particular stage of language learning. It is essential for a syllabus to provide with the needs for learning appropriately and errors are important evidence for that. Errors provide feedback about the effectiveness of his teaching techniques and show him what part of the syllabus.  Findings of error analysis function as facilitator in language teaching in many ways only if the teacher is aware of them and able to make use of them in the teaching process appropriately.

From: 60359; 70151; 70152; 70154; 70160 (entry 32)

Error Analysis (Question 2)

Discuss the differences between error and mistake, support your answer with some example!

Answer: The differences between error and mistake:

Error: a. Error is typically produced by learners who don’t fully command some institutionalized language system. b. We can know error through the arrangement of grammatical sentence. The sentence is usually ungrammatical and unacceptable.

Example: (*) Rini didn’t submitted assignment yesterday.

This sentence has double marking. They are “didn’t” and “submitted”. The correct sentence isRini didn’t submit assignment yesterday.

Mistake: Mistakes deviations due to performance factor as memory limitation, (for example in the sequence of tenses and agreement in a long sentences, spelling pronunciation), fatigue, and emotional strain. Mistake occurs just temporary and can be corrected by learner himself.

Example:

1.) Mistake in spelling pronunciation. When pronuncing the word “language”, some of the students tend to pronunce the word “language” incorrectly [l’enggwIdʒ], the true pronunciation is [l'æŋgwɪdʒ].

2.) A mistake appears because of failure to utilize a known system correctly and slip of tongue.

Example: (*) They students in UMS.

This sentence has no auxiliary verb “are”. The correct sentence is “They are students in UMS”.

From: 70063; 70065; 70068; 70079; 70086 (entry 27)

Error Analysis (Question 3)

Discuss Corder’s framework for error identification! 

Answer:

Corder (1982) proposes two different ways to arrive at the interpretation, depending upon whether there is an access to the learner or not. On the one hand, if the learner is present, he can be requested to say what he intended in his mother tongue and his utterance then translated into the target language. Corder (1978) calls this approach an authoritative reconstruction of his original utterance. On the other hand, if the learner is not available for consultation, an attempt has to be made for an interpretation of his utterance on the basis of its form and its context. Therefore, the understanding of speech in the learner’s mother tongue is undeniably helpful.

From: 70128; 70129; 70138; 70142; 70144 (entry 22)

Error Analysis (Question 4)

Discuss The Methodology in Error Analysis. 

Answer:

In order to reach the intended goals the researchers can employ a uniform methodology in error analysis. According to Corder (1978:126) the research methodology or research procedure in Error analysis basically consist of three major stages: recognition, description, and explanation of error. Sridhar (1980: 103) elaborates the above stages into the following steps:

1) Collection of data (either from free compositions by students on a given theme or from examination answer)

2) Identification of errors (labeling with varying degrees of precision depending on the linguistic sophistication brought to bear on the task, with respect to the exact nature of the deviation, e.g.,dangling preposition, anomalous sequence of tenses, etc;

3) Classification into error types (e.g. error of agreement, articles, verb form, etc.);

4) Statement of relative frequency of errors type; 5) Identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language; and 6) Therapy or remedial lessons.

The above methodology is a rough representative of the majority of Error Analysis in tradition framework.

Duskova and Rossipal (in Sridhar, 1980: 103) therefore, have proposed the more sophisticated method of investigation. They have elaborated the basic three stages in Error Analysis ( recognition, description, and explanation of errors) into following steps:

1) Collection of data (either from free compositions by students on a given theme or from examination answer);

2) Identification of errors ( labeling with varying degrees of precision depending on the linguistic sophistication brought to bear on the task, with respect to the exact nature of the deviation ,e.g., dangling preposition, anomalous sequence of tenses, etc.;

3) Classification into error types (e.g. errors of agreement, articles, verb forms etc.); 4)Statement of relative frequency of errors type; 5) Identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language; 6) Therapy or remedial lessons; 7) Analysis of the source of error (e.g. mother tongue interference, Intralingual error, developmental error, etc.); and 8) Determination of the degree of disturbance caused by error (the seriousness of the error in terms of communication, norm, etc.). 

From: 70145; 70124; 70146; 70149; 70135 (entry 11)

Error Analysis (Question 5)

Dulay, Burt, and Krashen present several commonly used based for descriptive classification of errors. Discuss and give examples following the strategies! a. linguistic category b. surface strategy taxonomy c. comparative taxonomy d. communicative effect taxonomy

Answer:

According to them, errors can be described using different kinds of taxonomy, namely, linguistic category, surface strategy taxonomy, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy.

The linguistic category James (1998:105)” carries out errors in terms of where the error is located in the overall system of the TL based on the linguistic item which is affected by the error”. The location of error can be in the field of phonology (e.g. pronunciation), syntax and morphology, semantic and lexicon, and style. Constituents may include elements that comprise each language component. Example: In syntax, the error can be in the main or the subordinate clause.

The surface strategy taxonomy It is a classification system “based on the ways in which the learner’s erroneous version is different from the presumed target version” (James 1998:106). It highlights the ways the surface structures deviate. By using surface strategy taxonomy the error classification can give a clear description about cognitive processes that underlie the learner’s reconstruction of the new language or language being learned. Example: Learner may omit necessary items or add unnecessary ones; they may misform items or misorder them.

The comparative taxonomy Second-language learner errors are classified by similarity children’s first-language learner deviations from target-language norms and or / by similarity with the errors made by second-language speaker from different first-language backgrounds. Example: both second-language learners and child first-language learners produce sentence types like the following: apple come down (no determiner the, no auxiliary verb have)

The communicative effect taxonomy Errors are classified by the effect they have on native speakers, whether in terms of comprehension or in terms of the way that non-native speakers are perceived by native-speakers. Example:

(1) The English language use much people. (2) English language use many people. (3) Much people use English language.

To ask native speakers of English for judgements of comprehensibility, sentence 3 is judged as more comprehensible than sentences 1-2.

From: 50045; 60073; 60129; 50184 (entry 33)

Error Analysis (Question 6)

Explain how error correction is very critical in foreign language learning!

Answer:

Error correction can help learners better learn the target language so that they can develop their interlanguage system, they can also learn proper pronunciation, spelling, grammar, diction, etc.

By providing the error correction the learners can learn the target language better in the next time. Corder (1982) argues that the child uses the correction to improve his hypothesis about the nature of the language he is learning. So that the teacher must provide the correction the learners need to modify their hypothesis about the functions and linguistic forms they use.

From: 60181; 70109; 70320 (entry 14)

Interlanguage (Question 1)

Discuss the following terms differ slightly! a) Transitional Competence  b) Idiosyncratic  c) Aproximative System  d) Interlanguage

Answer: 

a) Transitional Competence

Transitional competence means that in study of language, the learner must keep changing as long as the learner tries to improve his competence. It likes the method for the learner to increase and have the ability to learn more the language.

b) Idiosyncratic

Idiosyncratic is defined as an individualizing quality or characteristic of a person or group, and is often used to express eccentricity or peculiarity. It means that idiosyncratic is one way or style of transfer analysis, which is analysis of language can be transferred using an expression. Idiosyncratic also be applied to symbols. Idiosyncratic symbols mean one thing for a particular person, example: blade could mean war, but to someone else, it could symbolize a surgery. It shows that words are not only arbitrary, but also largely idiosyncratic signs.

c) Approximate system

It means that the learner is progressing towards the target language and his system is developmental in nature. The term system implies that he is using a set of rules and hence his language is not a random.

It is important to study this system separately because it can ‘provide attested information or immediate utility in teaching and course development on patterns of learning behavior for the principal structures of the target languages’ (Nemser 1971). What Nemser is trying to suggest is that the materials based on Contrastive linguistic studies are not so effective because they take into consideration only the learner’s mother tongue and his target language. If learner’s learning behavior as revealed from the study of his approximate system is understood we should be able to foresee the problems of a particular learner with respect to a particular target language.

d) Interlanguage

Interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1), or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations. An interlanguage is idiosyncratically based on the learners’ experiences with the L2. It can fossilizein any of its developmental stages. The interlanguage rules are shaped by: L1 transfer, transfer of training, strategies of L2 learning (e.g. simplification), strategies of L2 communication (or communication strategies like circumlocution), and overgeneralization of the target language patterns.

From: 70136; 70130; 70255; 70290; 70291 (entry 3)

Interlanguage (Question 3)

Discus the second feature of inter language, permeability! 

Answer:

Permeability is a property unique to the language, which may different from other natural language systems. The structure of inter language can be invaded or infiltrated by learners native language. For example : when the learners is placed in a situation that can’t be avoided they may use the linguistic rules or items from the first language. And in other situation, the learner may stretch, distort or over generalize rules from the target language to produce the intended meaning. These processes (native language transfer and over generalization) reflect the basic permeability of language.

From: 70060; 70106; 70122; 70131; 70133 (entry 24)

Interlanguage (Question 4)

Discuss the third feature of interlanguage, fossillization! 

Answer:

The term fossilization was first introduced by Selinker (1988: 92), to refer to “the persistence of plateaus of non-target like competence in the interlanguage“. When its dynamicity and permeability is lost, the features of an interlanguage become subject to fossilization. Normally, we expect a learner to progress further along the learning continuum, so that his competence moves closer to the TL system and contains fewer errors. Some errors, however, will probably never disappear entirely. Such errors are often described as already fossilized, meaning that they have become permanent features of the learner’s speech. A lot of issues have been reported that the vast majority of adult L2 learners fail to achieve native speaker’s competence. This might be the reason for Han (2004: 4) to prefer to use the term failure to refer to this phenomenon, and she defines it as “the permanent lack of mastery of a TL despite continuous exposure to adequate input, adequate motivation to improve, and sufficient opportunity to practice”. This phenomenon of non-progression (cessation) of learning an L2 has become a central concern for SLA researchers and has posed a major challenge to second language theorists. According to Ellis (2004) fossilization is part of the interlanguage process which happens at a certain point in the IL development. Selinker and Lakshamanan (1992) introduce the term stabilization. In addition to the above two terms, there are several others such as partial attainment, backsliding, stabilized errors, persistent non-target-like performance, cessation of learning, learning plateau, habitual errors, long-lasting free variation, persistent difficulty, ultimate attainment, and incompleteness (Han 2004: 26-27). These terms refer to the same phenomenon but may emphasize different aspects.

From: 60113; 60134; 70111; 70113; 70141; 70271 (entry 21)

Interlanguage (Question 5)

Selinker proposes 5 learning strategies usually used by language learners. Discuss each and back up your argument with adequate examples! a. Language transfer b. Transfer of training c. Strategies of second language learning d. Strategies of second language communication e. Overgeneralization

Answer: 

a) Language transfer

Some of the rules in the interlanguage system may be the result of transfer from the learner’s first language. In this case, our first language can help us to understand the language that has different culture or utterance.

b) Transfer of Training

Some of the components of the interlanguage system may result from transfer of specific elements via which the learner is taught the second language. The transfer of training is learning about the grammar of the second language. The grammatical language acquired by the learner trough the medium of instruction. The transfer can be positive and negative; the positive transfer linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning. Negative transfer, those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors. Example: the learners learn the second language taught by the teacher and the text books present drills. The teacher almost used word ‘he’ and never with ‘she’. So here too the learner could be said to use the copy the cue strategy. In here also the learner’s habit in second language grammar makes some errors.

c) Strategies of second language learning

Some of the rules in the learner’s interlanguage may result from the application of language learning strategies “as a tendency on the part of the learners to reduce the target language to a simpler system” (Selinker, 1977: 219).

d) Strategies of second language communication

Interlanguage system rules may also be the result of strategies employed by the learners in their attempt to communicate with native speakers of the target language. For example if we want to be fluent in English language, it’s better if we live in community using English for communication or we live in an English speaking country. Automatically if we are in the community of the people that speak in English, it stimulates us to learn English more, in order we can communicate with them clearly.

e) Overgeneralization

Some of the rules of the interlanguage system may be the result of the overgeneralisation of specific rules and features of the target language. It has a cognitive emphasis and a focus on the strategies that learners employ when learning a second language. It is essentially more than a stabilization, so interlanguage usually occurs. Fossilization is one of one of the example which is caused by an overgeneralisation. It is possible when the native speaker use the target language by changing some components of it. e.g. the word “the love” is usually spelled and written ‘ d luv’ by most of natives speakers. It means that it is not appropriate to the rules of the interlanguage themselves.

From: 70056; 70057; 70058; 70074; 70216; 70226 (entry 23)

Interlanguage (Question 6)

Discuss the differences between language transfer and language interference.

Answer: 

The differences between Language Interference and language Transfer

Language Interference 1) It is used to refer two different linguistic phenomena: Sociolinguisticand psychological. * in Sociolinguistic, it refers to those examples of derivation from the norms of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than language. * In Psychological use of the term refers to ” the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried out over into a new learning situation. 2) This term is also known as the sister term of negative transfer.

language Transfer 1) It is used widely in the IL (Interlanguage) and SLA (Second Language Acquisition) studies to describe different theoretical accounts of the learner’s mother tongue in learning a second language. In the transfer analysis literature , this term refers to the influence of the mother tongue on the learner’s performance in and or development of a given a target language.

From: 60055; 60062; 60096; 60110;  60112 (entry 8)

Discourse Analysis (Question 1)

Based on the definition quoted from different sources, state what discourse and discourse analysis are!

Answer:

1 DEFINITION OF DISCOURSE

Originally the word ‘discourse’ comes from Latin ‘discursus‘ which denoted ‘conversation, speech’. Discourse constitutes sequences of such relations to objects, subjects and other enouncements (statements). It seems tobe the unity of communicative intentions as a vital element of each of them.

2 DEFINITION OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study and application of approaches to analyze written, spoken or signed language.

The term discourse analysis (DA) first came into general use following the publication of a series of papers by Zellig Harris beginning in 1952 and reporting on work from which he developed transformational grammar in the late 1930s.

Contrary to much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysts not only study language use ‘beyond the sentence boundary’, but also prefer to analyze ‘naturally occurring’ language use, and not invented examples. This is known as  corpus linguistics; text linguistic related.

Discourse analysis is the branch of applied linguistics dealing with the examination of discourse attempts to find patterns in communicative products as well as and their correlation with the circumstances in which they occur, which are not explainable at the grammatical level (Carter 1993:23).

From: 50265; 60039; 60259; 60267 (entry 12)

Discourse Analysis (Question 2)

What is speech act theory concerned with? give examples of typical speech acts.

Answer:

Speech act theory concerned with actions which are performed via utterances. The examples of typical speech acts: a) Apology: “please forgive me” as uttered when someone has problem to another and he wants to get apologize from another. b) Complaint: “your work is very bad” as uttered when someone is not satisfied about the work. c) Invitation: “I invite you to come to my party” as uttered when someone will celebrate her day. d) Promise: “I promise” as uttered when someone gives promise to another.

From: 70006; 70127; 70139; 70150; 60159 (entry 16)

Discourse Analysis (Question 5)

Austin proposes two types of performatives : explicit and primary, discuss and give examples.

Answer:

Performatives are sentences which are not statements although they have the structure of a statement “I promise you to take a taxi home”. Performatives utterances cannot be labeled true/false. In uttering a performative the speaker does not only say something but performs an action.

1) Explicit: the sentences that has clearly meaning, because it realized with verb and utterances which have there characteristic and which sound correct if you add hereby (dengan ini …): hereby I promise to you…. Non performatives utterance: sound wrong if we add hereby. Explicit do not need to have those characteristic for example: I charge you with treason(penghianatan) or you are charged with treason.

The majority of the performatives are implicit. Means that they need an expansion to make them explicit. You have to know something about the rituation.

Austin’s attention was first attracted to what he called ‘explicit performative utterances’, in which one uses sentences like “I nominate”…you are fired, the meeting is adjourned, and you are hereby sentenced…..to perform acts of the very sort named by the verb, such as nominating (mencalonkan), firing (memecat), and adjourning (menunda).

2) Primary/primitive: the sentences that has ambiguous meaning (it has more than one meaning) because it is without verb. And also in order to understand a primary performative utterance one needs to know something about the communicative action.

Austin’s attention was first attracted to what he called ‘primary performative utterances’, in which one uses sentences like ‘I give you the car’, ‘I fire you from this job‘.

Examples (mainly of explicit performative utterances) :

> “I now pronounce you man and wife.” – used in the course of a marriage ceremony.

> “Go” – used in ordering someone to go. > “You are under arrest.” – used in setting someone under arrest. > “I accept your apology” > “I sentence you to death” > “I divorce you, I divorce you, I divorce you” > “I do” – wedding > “I swear to do that“, “I promise to be there” > “This meeting is now adjourned“, “The court is now in session”

From: 50285; 50276 (entry 29)

Discourse Analysis (Question 7)

Discuss five major grouping of performative verbs by Austin, give example.

Answer: 

Five major grouping of performative verbs or speech act verbs are:

1) Verdictives, are typified by the the giving of a verdict, estimate, reckoning or appraisal; giving a finding. Examples: assessing, ranking, rating, estimating, grading, diagnosing, calculating, and measuring.

2) Excersitives, the exercising of powers, rights or influence, exemplified by voting, ordering, urging, advising, warning, etc. Examples: order, plead, recommend, etc.

3) Commissives, typified by promising or otherwise undertaking, ‘they commit you to doing something, but include also declarations or announcements of intention, which are not promises, and also rather vague things which we might call espousals, as for example, siding with’.

4) Behabities, which have to do with social behaviour and attitudes, for example apologizing, congratulating, commending, condoling, cursing and challenging.

5) Expositives, which make it clear how our utterances fit into the course of an argument or conversation – how we are using words. In a way, these might be classed as metalinguistic, as part of the language we are using about language. Examples: I reply; I argue; I concede; I illustrate; I assume; I postulate.

From: 60243; 60331; 60346; 60353; 60300; 60245; 60385; 60364 (entry 2)

Discourse Analysis (Question 8)

Another approach to discourse is ethnography of communication. discuss how it works.

Answer:

The ethnography of communication, initiated by Dell Hymes,  is an approach to discourse, which is based on linguistics and ethnography. this approach is to analyze patterns of communication practices of particular culture. Methodology used in ethnography of communication is known as SPEAKING grid which consists of three communication units that are situation, communicative events, and acts.

Situation: The social occasion (the setting of scene) that is governed by a single set of rules  in which speech may occur.

Communicative (speech) events: activities, or speech of activities which are directly governed by notes or norms of the use of speech. To analyze communicative events can be described below: S (setting, scene), P (participant), E (ends/purpose and goals or outcomes), A (act sequence/message form and content), K (key/(tone, manner), I (instrumental/channel), N (norm of interaction), G (Genre/ textual categories).

Speech acts: The smallest units that can be defined through their ilocutionary force such as commands and greetings.

From: 70Joko; 60009; 60014; 60017; 60032; 60036 (entry 20)

Discourse Analysis (Question 9)

Hymes has proposed a methodology used to discover communicative events. The classificatory grid that he has proposed is known as the SPEAKING grid. Discuss each possible component of communication. Give example.

Answer:

The SPEAKING Grid which is used as the tool for analysis in this study helps to uncover potential verbal and nonverbal features of distinct speech events, and also to understand how these features are related to one another. Each letter in the acronym S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G stands for one possible component of the communication to be analyzed (Wardaugh 1997, pp.245-247):

1. (S) : Setting/scene physical setting/psychological scene Setting refers to physical circumstances eg. time, place in which the event takes place, scene refers to pschological/ abstract settings. For instance, the scene of the president’s new year message would largely differ from the scene of a message following a disaster that hits the country.

2. (P) : Participant/speaker/hearer, addressor/addressee or audience Participants involve various combinations of speaker-listener,sender-receiver, addresser-addressee, etc., and they usually fill socially specified roles. Eg. A prayer Hatice ÇUBUKÇU makes a deity participant. Or, in a classroom setting, the teacher’s question followed by a student’s answer does not only involve the two interactants, but it assigns the role of ‘attentive listeners’ to the rest of the class.

3. (E) : Ends/ purposes/goals Ends refers to the conventionally recognized and expected outcomes or purposes of the event but it also includes specific goals of the interactants. Eg. A trial in a courtroom has a recognizable social end but different participants (eg. Defendants or prosecutors) also have their own goals.

4. (A) : Act-sequence/message form/structure and content Act-sequence refers to the actual form and content of what is said. This part is the basic aspect of speech events with which linguists interest themselves (as in this study).

5. (K) : Key/tone/manner/spirit of encounter Key refers to the tone and manner or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed. Some examples may be light-hearted, serious, sarcastic etc.

6. (I) : Instrumentalities/channel (e.g. verbal/nonverbal, spoken/written) Instrumentalities has to do with the channel (verbal/non-verbal), physical forms of speech, written or oral etc. A single event may involve using multiple instrumentalities; e.g., oral and written modes, or switches across languages.

7. (N) : Norms of interaction/ rules governing when, how and how often speech occurs Norms of interaction and interpretation refer to specific properties attached to speaking concerning cultural beliefs, attitudes and styles by the speech community .

8. (G) : Genre/ stylistic structure and mode Genre refers to clearly categorized textual categories, such as, poems, jokes, sermons, lectures.

From: 60212; 60214; 60044; 60283; 60284; 60291 (entry 31)

Discourse Analysis (Question 11)

Discuss the term genre and its relation to speech events ? 

Answer:

The notion of genre implies the possibility of formal characteristics traditionally recognized. All speech has formal characteristics of some sort as the manifestation of genres. Genres oftencoincide with speech events, but must be treated as analytically independent of them. They may occur in different events. The sermon, for example, as a genre is typically identical with a certain place in a church or a mosque service, but its properties may be invoked in other situations for serious effect. Members of community recognize genres as having beginning, middles, and ends, and as being patterned. “once upon a time …” is a recognized opener for the genre child’s story, and the ending is “they lived happily ever after.” Note: Genres here refer to categories such as poem, myth, tale, proverb, riddle, curse, prayer, oration, lecture, commercial, form letter, editorial, etc. (Hymes, 1983).

From: 60213; 60223; 60224; 60226; 60232 (entry 10)

Discourse Analysis (Question 12)

What is the concern of Pragmatics? 

Answer:

Pragmatics concerns with discourse analysis. Pragmatics is what helps individuals engage in social connection with other. Both pragmatics and discourse analysis are widely recognized as subfield of linguistics that are difficult to define in a way that not only reflect their internal unity but also separates them from one other and from other domains of inquiry. The study of the use context to make inferences about meaning (Fasold, 1993:119). Speaker meaning is the first concept of Grecian pragmatic, these concept provide with the distinction between two kinds of meaning : semantic and pragmatic.

From: 60286 (entry 35)

Discourse Analysis (Question 13)

One of the central concepts of Gricean pragmatics is the speaker meaning. Discuss this concept and provide with examples for clarification.

Answer:

The concept of speaker meaning according to Grice is that meaning can be categorized into two kinds of meaning: semantic (natural) meaning and pragmatic (non-natural) meaning. Non-natural meaning is roughly equivalent to intentional communication whereas natural meaning is lack of human intentionally (Grice, 1957; Schiffrin, 1994). A sentence ‘those spots mean measles’ is an example of natural meaning, but a sentence ‘those three rings on the bell of the bus’ which means ‘the bus is full’ is an example of non-natural meaning. If we were to focus just on the natural meaning, we would not be able to identify what is really intended by the speaker. Yet speakers often use such utterances to mean considerably more than what is conveyed by their semantic meaning.

From: 60337; 60340; 60341; 60342; 60348 (entry 28)

Discourse Analysis (Question 14)

Discuss the concept of implicature. Give example to your explanation. 

Answer:

Notion of Implicature Implicature shows the intention of speech. It is an inference that cannot be drawn from the utterance by itself. Implicature is implied meaning that the addressee must infer based on the context of the utterance and the knowledge that the addresser and addressee share (the schemata = prior knowledge).

Types of Implicature:

1) Conventional Implicature The implied meaning intended by the speaker can be inferred directly from the grammatical form.

Example: A: “What subject does your daughter take in UCLA?” B: “Math” Implicature: B’s daughter takes mathematic. (convensional Implicature)

2) Conversational Implicature To get the intention of the speaker, the hearer needs to infer based on the speech context.

Examples: A: “Do any of John’s daughters speak a foreign language?” B: ” Mary speaks French”Implicature: Mary is John daughter (Conversational Implicature) 

From: 60160; 60164; 60194; 60195 (entry 15)

Discourse Analysis (Question 15)

Discuss the concept of cooperative principles in communication proposed by Grice.

Answer:

Before talking about the concept of cooperative principle, it’s better to understand the concept of implicature first. An implicature is an implication or suggestion deduced from the form of an utterance. A conversational implicature uses the cooperative principles which govern the efficiency of conversation. These maxims are derived not from the nature of conversation perse but from the fact that talking is “a special case or variety of purpossive, indees rational behavior,” (Grice, 1975: 47). It is the principle that provides a basis for theinference of implicature. Speaker can lead their hearers interpret their communicative intent orspeaker meaning, which often goes beyond the logical meaning of what they say. In other words, conversational implicature allow a speaker to convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed.According to Grice (1975) there are five ways conversationalists would deal with the above maxims. They are as follows:1. Speakers or conversationalists can straight forwardly follow (mengikuti) the maxims.2. Someone may violate (melanggar)a maxim when he deliberately will tell a lie.3. A speaker can opt out (memilih) of maxim.4. A maxim can be violated (dapat dilanggar) such as in a case when someone has to violate one maxim in order to fulfill another.5. A maxim can be flouted (dicemooh). When a maxim is flouted, a speaker doesn’t observe the maxim, but cannot be accused of violating the maxim either.Thus in order to identify that a particular conversational implicature is present within a conversation, the hearer should rely on the following data:1. The conversational meanings of the words used.2. The cooperative principle and its maxims.3. The context linguistic or otherwise, of an utterance.4. Other items of background knowledge.5. The fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.

From: 60100; 70248; 70266; 70314; 70315; 70322; 70328; 70333 (entry 30)

Discourse Analysis (Question 16)

According to Grice, there are five ways conversationalist would deal with conversational maxims. discuss these maxims and give example.

Answer:

According to Grice, there are five ways conversationalist would deal with conversational maxims. They are as follows:

1) Speakes or conversationalist can straight forwardly follow the maxim. They can speak the truth, while giving just enough relevant information in a clear, unambiguous, succint, and orderly manner. It is quite possible that most of the time people just do that.

2) Someone may violate (melanggar) a maxim when he deliberately will tell a lie.

3) A speaker can “opt out” (memilih) of maxim. This seems to be uncommon occurance. An example given by Grice is that when someone has require to contribute some information but he has an obligation not to divulge it and has to say something like I cannot say more, my lips are sealed.

4) A maxim can be violated (dilanggar) such as in case when someone has to violate one maxim in order to fulfill another (maxim clash). Let me provide with Grece’s example (1975: 51 ) A: Where does he live? B: Somewhere in the south of France.

5) A maxim can be flouted (dicemooh). When a maxim is flouted, a speaker does not observe the maxim, but cannot be accused of  violating the maxim either. Someone can say things that seem to violate one or more of the maxims. For example, he can violate the quantity maxim by presenting less information than seem to be required. He can violate the quality maxim by saying things which seem to be false, when these occur, however, hearer still assume that a speaker is following the general cooperative principle. It turns out that some maxims violations are apparentonly due to semantic problem. This is Grice’s example of metaphor for clearer ilustration (1975: 53). “You are the cream in my coffee.” Here the speaker is attributing to his audience some featurs in respects of which the audience resembles the mentioned substance (cream).